Dietary Vitamin A for Aquatic Animals
Abstract
Vitamin A is a group of organic matters biologically active like retinol and plays important roles on vision, cell formation, embryonic development and immune system. It consists of two groups which are retinoids i.e. retinol and retinal, and carotenoids being precursors for vitamin A synthesis i.e. beta-carotene. Aquatic animals mostly deposit vitamin A in liver as ester forms of all-trans-retinol (Vitamin A1) and 3,4-dehydroretinol (Vitamin A2). Marine fish deposits only A1,but both forms for freshwater fish. Vitamin A deficient aquatic animals (Hypovitaminosis A) show a unique clinical sign of blindness or exophthalmia, while excessive dietary intake (Hypervitaminosis A) causes bone deformity, especially spinal cord. Vitamin A quantity has been preferably determined as International Unit (IU) or Retinol Equivalent (RE) accounted for 0.3 and 1 microgram of retinol, respectively. Aquatic animal feed mills mostly use synthetic retinyl acetate or palmitate as dietary vitamin A source either a single or a vitamin premix form. Currently, there have been more studies about dietary vitamin A for aquatic animals, especially at young and juvenile stages, but requirements of those groups studied cannot be clearly specified. These are because of test levels were determined with high difference, non-proportion or some high values resulted in hypervitaminosis A. However, based on previous researches and recommendations, it can be preliminarily concluded that shrimp, prawn and fish diets should contain vitamin A calculated as retinol at least 4,000 IU and not above 12,000 IU per kilogram. Keywords : vitamin A ; retinol ; retinoid ; carotenoid ; aquatic animalReferences
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Aoe, H., Madsuda, I., Mimura, T., Sato, T. & Komo, A. (1968). Requirement of young carp for vitamin A. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 33(10), 1068-1071.
Bender, D.A. (2009). The vitamins. In M.J. Gibney, S..A. Lanham-New, A. Cassidy & H.H. Vorster. (Eds.), Introduction to Human Nutrition. (Second edition). (pp. 147-202). NJ, USA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Campeche, D., Catharino, R.R., Godoy, H.T. & Cyrino, J.E.P. (2009). Vitamin A in diets for Nile tilapia. Scientia Agricola, 66(6), 751-756.
Chueapohak, W. (1999). Aquatic Animal Nutrition and Feeding Aquatic Animal. Bangkokok, Thailand: Kasetsart University Press. (in Thai)
Combs, G.F. (2008). The vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. (Third edition). MA, USA: Elsevier Academic Press.
Dedi, J., Takeuchi, T., Seikai, T. & Watanabe, T. (1995). Hypervitaminosis and safe levels of vitamin A for larval flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) fed Artemia nauplii. Aquaculture, 133(2), 135-146.
Dedi, J., Takeuchi, T., Seikai, T., Watanabe, T. & Hosoya, K. (1997). Hypervitaminosis A during vertebral morphogenesis in larval Japanese flounder. Fisheries Science, 63(3), 466-473.
De Luca, L.M. (1982). Studies on mannosyl carrier function of retinol and retinoic acid in epithelial and mesenchymal tissues. Journal of the American Academy of Dertamology, 6(4)Part 2, 611-618.
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Elomda, A.M., Saad, M.F., Saeed, A.M., Elsayed, A., Abass, A.O., Safaa, H.M. & Mehaisen, G.M.K. (2018). Antioxidant and developmental capacity of retinol on the in vitro culture of rabbit embryos. Zygote, 26(4), 326-332.
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Guimarães, I.G., Lim, C., Yildirim-Aksoy, M., Li, M. & Klesius, P.H. (2014). Effects of dietary levels of vitamin A on growth, hematology, immune response and resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Streptococcus iniae. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 188, 126-136.
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Hernandez, L.H.H., Teshima, S., Koshio, S., Ishikawa, M., Gallardo-Cigarroa, F.J., Alam, S., & Uyan, O. (2006). Effects of vitamin A palmitate, β-carotene and retinoic acid on the growth and incidence of deformities in larvae of red sea bream Chrysophrys major. Ciencias Marinas 32(1B), 195-204.
Hernandez, L.H.H., Teshima, S., Ishikawa, M., Koshio, S., Gallardo-Cigarroa, F.J., Uyan, O. & Alam, S. (2009). Vitamin A effects and requirements on the juvenile kuruma prawn Marsupenaeus japonicus. Hidrobiológica, 19(3), 217-223.
Hilton, J.W. (1983). Hypervitaminosis A in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri): Toxicity signs and maximum tolerable level. The Journal of Nutrition, 113(9), 1737-1745.
Hosokawa, H. (1989). The Vitamin Requirements of Fingerling Yellowtail, Seriola quinqueradiata. Kochi, Japan: Kochi University.
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Jing, K., He, S., Chen, T., Lu, Y. & Ng, I.S. (2016). Enhancing beta-carotene biosynthesis and gene transcriptional regulation in Blakeslea trispora with sodium acetate. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 114, 10-17.
Kitamura, S., Suwa, T., Ohara, S. & Nakagawa, K. (1967). Studies on vitamin requirements of rainbow trout. II. The deficiency symptoms of fourteen kinds of vitamins. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 33(12), 1120-1125.
Lian, X.Y., Chen, N.S., Wang, M.L., Yan, C.H. & Ding, G.T. (2017). Dietary vitamin A requirement of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 29(10), 3819-3830.
Liang, M., Wenjuan, J., Qing, C. & Jialin, W. (2004). The effect of vitamin A supplementation in broodstock feed on reproductive performance and larval quality in Penaeus chinensis. Aquaculture Nutrition, 10(5), 295-300.
Liu, B., Zhao, Z., Brown, P.B., Cui, H., Xie, J., Habte-Tsion, H.M. & Ge, X. (2016). Dietary vitamin A requirement of juvenile Wuchang bream (Megalobrama amblycephala) determined by growth and disease resistance. Aquaculture, 450, 23-30.
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Mohamed, J.S., Sivaram, V., Roy, T.S.C., Marian, M.P., Murugadass, M. & Hussain, M.R. (2003). Dietary vitamin A requirement of juvenile greasy grouper (Epinephelus tauvina). Aquaculture, 219(104), 693-701.
Mora, J.R., Iwata, M. & von Andrian, U.H. (2008). Vitamin effects on the immune system: vitamins A and D take centre stage. Nature Reviews Immunology, 8(9), 685-698.
Moren, M., Opstad, I., Berntssen, M.H.G., Zambonino Infante, J.L. & Hamre, K. (2004). An optimum level of vitamin A supplements for Atlantic halibut (Hipoglossus hipoglossus L.) juveniles. Aquaculture, 235(1-4), 587-599.
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Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. (2000). Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature, 405, 1017-1024.
Oliveira, L.M, Teixeira, F.M.E. & Sato, M.S. (2018). Impact of retinoic acid on immune cells and inflammatory diseases. Mediators of Inflammation, 3067126.
Ørnsrud, R., Graff, I.E., Høie, S., Totland, G.K. & Hemre, G.I. (2002). Hypervitaminosis A in the first-feeding fry of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture Nutrition, 8(1), 7-13.
Ørnsrud, R., Lock, E.J., Waagbo, R., Krossøy, C. & Fjelldal, P.G. (2013). Establishing an upper level of intake for vitamin A in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) postsmolts. Aquaculture Nutrition, 19(5), 651-664.
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Plaipetch, P. (2015). Nutritional management for nursing and culturing Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei Boone, 1931). Journal of Agriculture, 31(1), 89-105. (in Thai)
Plaipetch, P. (2016). Nutritional management for culturing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Thammasat Journal of Science and Technology, 24(1), 12-39. (in Thai)
Ravisankar, P., Reddy, A.A., Nagalakshmi, B., Koushik, O.S., Kumar, B.V. & Anvith, P.S. (2015). The comprehensive review on fat soluble vitamins. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 5(1), 12-28.
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Rushton, W.A.H. (1966). Densitometry of pigments in rods and cones of normal and color defective subjects.
Investigative Ophthalmology, 5(3), 233–241.
Saleh, G., Eleraky, W. & Gropp, J.M. (1995). A short note on the effects of vitamin A hypervitaminosis on health and growth of Tilapia nilotica (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal Applied Ichthyology, 11(304), 382–385.
Shao, L., Zhu, X., Yang, Y., Jin, J., Liu, H., Han, D. & Xie, S. (2016). Effects of dietary vitamin A on growth, hematology, digestion and lipometabolism of on-growing gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio var. CAS III). Aquaculture, 460, 83-89.
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Aoe, H., Madsuda, I., Mimura, T., Sato, T. & Komo, A. (1968). Requirement of young carp for vitamin A. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 33(10), 1068-1071.
Bender, D.A. (2009). The vitamins. In M.J. Gibney, S..A. Lanham-New, A. Cassidy & H.H. Vorster. (Eds.), Introduction to Human Nutrition. (Second edition). (pp. 147-202). NJ, USA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Campeche, D., Catharino, R.R., Godoy, H.T. & Cyrino, J.E.P. (2009). Vitamin A in diets for Nile tilapia. Scientia Agricola, 66(6), 751-756.
Chueapohak, W. (1999). Aquatic Animal Nutrition and Feeding Aquatic Animal. Bangkokok, Thailand: Kasetsart University Press. (in Thai)
Combs, G.F. (2008). The vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. (Third edition). MA, USA: Elsevier Academic Press.
Dedi, J., Takeuchi, T., Seikai, T. & Watanabe, T. (1995). Hypervitaminosis and safe levels of vitamin A for larval flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) fed Artemia nauplii. Aquaculture, 133(2), 135-146.
Dedi, J., Takeuchi, T., Seikai, T., Watanabe, T. & Hosoya, K. (1997). Hypervitaminosis A during vertebral morphogenesis in larval Japanese flounder. Fisheries Science, 63(3), 466-473.
De Luca, L.M. (1982). Studies on mannosyl carrier function of retinol and retinoic acid in epithelial and mesenchymal tissues. Journal of the American Academy of Dertamology, 6(4)Part 2, 611-618.
EFSA. (2013). Scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of vitamin A (retinyl acetate, retinyl palmitate and retinyl propionate) as a feed additive for all animal species and categories. EFSA Journal, 11(1), 3037.
Elomda, A.M., Saad, M.F., Saeed, A.M., Elsayed, A., Abass, A.O., Safaa, H.M. & Mehaisen, G.M.K. (2018). Antioxidant and developmental capacity of retinol on the in vitro culture of rabbit embryos. Zygote, 26(4), 326-332.
FAO. (2020). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization Headquarter.
FEFANA. (2014). Vitamins in Animal Nutrition. Brussels, Belgium: FEFANA Office.
Ghyasvand, T., Goodarzi, M.T., Amiri, I., Karimi, J. & Ghorbani, M. (2015). Serum levels of lycopene, beta-carotene, and retinol and their correlation with sperm DNA damage in normospermic and infertile men. International Journal of Reproductive BioMedicine, 13(12), 787-792.
Gimenez, A.V.F., Díaz, A.C., Velurtas, S.M., Petriella, A.M. & Fenucci, J.L. (2008). Effects of different dietary vitamin A levels in the red shrimp Pleoticus muelleri (Bate, 1888) (Decapoda, Solenoceridae). Revista de Biología Marina y Oceanografía, 43(3), 483-490.
Glencross, B.D. (2006). The nutritional management of barramundi, Lates calcarifer-a review. Aquaculture Nutrition, 12(4), 291-309.
Guimarães, I.G., Lim, C., Yildirim-Aksoy, M., Li, M. & Klesius, P.H. (2014). Effects of dietary levels of vitamin A on growth, hematology, immune response and resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Streptococcus iniae. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 188, 126-136.
Guo, R., Lim, C., Xia, H., Yildirim-Aksoy, M., & Li, M. (2010). Effect of various dietary vitamin A levels on growth performance and immune response of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Frontiers of Agriculture in China, 4(4), 507-512.
Hernandez, L.H.H, Teshima, S., Ishikawa, M., Koshio, S. & Tanaka, Y. (2004). Effects of dietary vitamin A on juvenile red sea bream Chrysophrys major. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 35(4), 436-444.
Hernandez, L.H.H., Teshima, S., Ishikawa, M., Alam, S., Koshio, S. & Tanaka, Y. (2005). Dietary vitamin A requirements of juvenile Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. Aquaculture Nutrition, 11(1), 3-9.
Hernandez, L.H.H., Teshima, S., Koshio, S., Ishikawa, M., Gallardo-Cigarroa, F.J., Alam, S., & Uyan, O. (2006). Effects of vitamin A palmitate, β-carotene and retinoic acid on the growth and incidence of deformities in larvae of red sea bream Chrysophrys major. Ciencias Marinas 32(1B), 195-204.
Hernandez, L.H.H., Teshima, S., Ishikawa, M., Koshio, S., Gallardo-Cigarroa, F.J., Uyan, O. & Alam, S. (2009). Vitamin A effects and requirements on the juvenile kuruma prawn Marsupenaeus japonicus. Hidrobiológica, 19(3), 217-223.
Hilton, J.W. (1983). Hypervitaminosis A in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri): Toxicity signs and maximum tolerable level. The Journal of Nutrition, 113(9), 1737-1745.
Hosokawa, H. (1989). The Vitamin Requirements of Fingerling Yellowtail, Seriola quinqueradiata. Kochi, Japan: Kochi University.
IAFFD. (2021). Aquaculture Species Nutritional Specifications Database (ASNS). Retrieved January 19, 2021, from http://www.iaffd.com.
Jain, J.L., Jain, N. & Jain, S. (2005). Fundamentals of Biochemistry. (Sixth edition). New Delhi, India: S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Jing, K., He, S., Chen, T., Lu, Y. & Ng, I.S. (2016). Enhancing beta-carotene biosynthesis and gene transcriptional regulation in Blakeslea trispora with sodium acetate. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 114, 10-17.
Kitamura, S., Suwa, T., Ohara, S. & Nakagawa, K. (1967). Studies on vitamin requirements of rainbow trout. II. The deficiency symptoms of fourteen kinds of vitamins. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 33(12), 1120-1125.
Lian, X.Y., Chen, N.S., Wang, M.L., Yan, C.H. & Ding, G.T. (2017). Dietary vitamin A requirement of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 29(10), 3819-3830.
Liang, M., Wenjuan, J., Qing, C. & Jialin, W. (2004). The effect of vitamin A supplementation in broodstock feed on reproductive performance and larval quality in Penaeus chinensis. Aquaculture Nutrition, 10(5), 295-300.
Liu, B., Zhao, Z., Brown, P.B., Cui, H., Xie, J., Habte-Tsion, H.M. & Ge, X. (2016). Dietary vitamin A requirement of juvenile Wuchang bream (Megalobrama amblycephala) determined by growth and disease resistance. Aquaculture, 450, 23-30.
McCullough, F.S., Northropclewes, C..A. & Thurnham, D.I. (1999). The effect of vitamin A on epithelial integrity. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 58(2), 289-293.
McDowell, L.R. (2000). Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition. (Second edition). IA, USA: Iowa State University Press.
Mohamed, J.S., Sivaram, V., Roy, T.S.C., Marian, M.P., Murugadass, M. & Hussain, M.R. (2003). Dietary vitamin A requirement of juvenile greasy grouper (Epinephelus tauvina). Aquaculture, 219(104), 693-701.
Mora, J.R., Iwata, M. & von Andrian, U.H. (2008). Vitamin effects on the immune system: vitamins A and D take centre stage. Nature Reviews Immunology, 8(9), 685-698.
Moren, M., Opstad, I., Berntssen, M.H.G., Zambonino Infante, J.L. & Hamre, K. (2004). An optimum level of vitamin A supplements for Atlantic halibut (Hipoglossus hipoglossus L.) juveniles. Aquaculture, 235(1-4), 587-599.
Nasiri, E., Mahmoudi, R., Bahadori, M.H. & Amiri, I. (2011). The effect of retinoic acid on In vitro maturation and fertilization rate of mouse germinal vesicle stage oocytes. Cell Journal (Yakhteh), 13(1), 19-24.
NRC. (1993). Nutrient Requirements of Fish. Washington D.C., USA: National Academy Press.
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. (2000). Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature, 405, 1017-1024.
Oliveira, L.M, Teixeira, F.M.E. & Sato, M.S. (2018). Impact of retinoic acid on immune cells and inflammatory diseases. Mediators of Inflammation, 3067126.
Ørnsrud, R., Graff, I.E., Høie, S., Totland, G.K. & Hemre, G.I. (2002). Hypervitaminosis A in the first-feeding fry of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture Nutrition, 8(1), 7-13.
Ørnsrud, R., Lock, E.J., Waagbo, R., Krossøy, C. & Fjelldal, P.G. (2013). Establishing an upper level of intake for vitamin A in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) postsmolts. Aquaculture Nutrition, 19(5), 651-664.
Park, W.S., Kim, H.J., Li, M., Lim, D.H., Kim, J., Kwak, S.S., Kang, C.M., Ferruzzi, M.G. & Ahn, M.J. (2018). Two classes of pigments, carotenoids and C-phycocyanin, in spirulina powder and their antioxidant activities. Molecules, 23(8), 2065.
Plaipetch, P. (2014a). Nutritional researches on hybrid clariid catfish (Clarias macrocephalus x C. gariepinus). Journal of Science and Technology Kasetsart University, 3(2), 52-70. (in Thai)
Plaipetch, P. (2014b). Advances in nutritional researches on Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790). KKU Research Journal, 19(4), 571-584. (in Thai)
Plaipetch, P. (2015). Nutritional management for nursing and culturing Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei Boone, 1931). Journal of Agriculture, 31(1), 89-105. (in Thai)
Plaipetch, P. (2016). Nutritional management for culturing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Thammasat Journal of Science and Technology, 24(1), 12-39. (in Thai)
Ravisankar, P., Reddy, A.A., Nagalakshmi, B., Koushik, O.S., Kumar, B.V. & Anvith, P.S. (2015). The comprehensive review on fat soluble vitamins. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 5(1), 12-28.
Rosenfeld, L. (1997). Vitamine-vitamin, the early years of discovery. Clinical Chemistry, 43(4), 680-685.
Rushton, W.A.H. (1966). Densitometry of pigments in rods and cones of normal and color defective subjects.
Investigative Ophthalmology, 5(3), 233–241.
Saleh, G., Eleraky, W. & Gropp, J.M. (1995). A short note on the effects of vitamin A hypervitaminosis on health and growth of Tilapia nilotica (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal Applied Ichthyology, 11(304), 382–385.
Shao, L., Zhu, X., Yang, Y., Jin, J., Liu, H., Han, D. & Xie, S. (2016). Effects of dietary vitamin A on growth, hematology, digestion and lipometabolism of on-growing gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio var. CAS III). Aquaculture, 460, 83-89.
Shiau, S.Y. & Chen, Y. (2000). Estimation of the dietary vitamin A requirement of juvenile grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon. The Journal of Nutrition, 130(1), 90-94.
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2021-09-15
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