Contamination of biotoxin, Domoic acid in stranded marine mammals in Thai water
Abstract
Study of Contamination of biotoxin, Domoic acid in stranded marine mammals in Thai water was conducted during October 2016 - September 2018. A total of 9 species of 20 marine mammals was investigated, which were Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps),Dwarf sperm whale(Kogia sima), Shot-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) and Dugong (Dugong dugon). The results reveal that 65% of marine mammals were positively detected by domoic acid (13 of 20 individuals) with the concentration ranged between nd - 68.61 µg/g. The highest average concentration detected in stomach content, followed by intestinal contents, kidney, liver and feces, respectively. However, further study and more number of fresh stranded marine mammals are still needed for the better understanding of status of contamination of domoic acid in Thai marine mammals. Keywords : domoic acid, marine mammals, biotoxinReferences
Adulyanukosol, K., Thongsukdee. S., Prempree, T., and Cherdsukjai, P., (2014). Field Guide to Marine Mammals
and Turtles of Thailand. Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. Bangkok (in Thai)
Bargu, S., Mary S., Tracey, G., Kathryn, R., Frances, G. (2010). Complexity of domoic acid-related sea lion
strandings in Monterey Bay, California: foraging patterns, climate events, and toxic blooms,Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 418, 213-222.
Bargu, S., Goldstein, T., Roberts, K., Li, C. and Gulland, F. (2012). Pseudo-nitzschia bloom, domoic acid, and
related California sea lion stranding in Montrrey Bay, California. Marine Mammal Science, 28(2),
237 - 253.
Borwizka, M. A. and Lethbridge R.C. (1989). Seagrass epiphytes. In A.D.W. Larkum, A.J. Mccomb and S.A.
Shepherd. (Eds), Biology of Seagrass. (pp. 458-499). Oxford: Elsevier.
Chotiyanwong, N. (1994). Biology and electron microscopic structure of the diatom Nitzschia sp. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Chumnantana, R. (2006). Causative Phytoplankton of Red tide Phenomena in The Upper Gulf of Thailand. Technical paper no. 1/2006, Phuket Marine Biological Center, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (in Thai)
De la Riva, G.T., Christine, K. J., Jonna, A.K. M., Frances, M.D.G., Gregg, L., John, H., Teri, R. (2006). Marine
Mammal Strandings Along the Southern California Coast Associated With Domoic Acid Producing Algal
Blooms. In IAAAM Conference Proceeding. Retrieved Sep 15, 2018, from https://www.vin.com/apputil/
content/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11215&meta=Generic&catId=31320&id=3981151&ind=117&objTypeID=17
De la Riva, G.T., Johnson, C.K., Gulland, F.M.D., Langlois, G.W., Heyning, J.E., Rowles,T.K. and Mazet, J.A.K. (2009). Association of an unusual marine mammal mortality event with Pseudo-nitzschia spp. blooms along the Southern California coastline. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 45, 109-121.
Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. (2018). Central database and standards for marine and coastal
resources. Retrieved September 3, 2018. from https://km.dmcr.go.th/th/c_10/d_935 (in Thai)
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Leighfield, T.A., Morton, S.L., McFee, W.E., McLellan, W.A., Litake,r R.W., Tester, P.W.,
Hohn, A.A., Lovewell, G., Harms, C., Rotstein, D.S., Barco, S.G., Costidis, A., Sheppard, B., Bossart
G.D., Stolen, M., Durden, W.N. and Van Dolah, F.M. (2009). Domoic acid exposure in pygmy and dwarf
sperm whales (Kogia spp.) from southeastern and mid-Atlantic U.S. waters.Harmful Algae, 8, 658-664.
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Berman, M., Langlois, G.W., Morton, S.L., Sekula-Wood, E. and Benitez-Nelson, C.R.
(2010). Trophic Transfer of the Harmful Algal Toxin Domoic Acid as a Cause of Death in a Minke Whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata) Stranding in Southern California. Aquatic Mammals, 36(4), 342-350.
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Byrd, M., Whitehead, H.R., Paternoster, J. and Morton, S.L. (2011). Co-occurrence of multiple classes of harmful algal toxins in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) stranding during an unusual mortality event in Texas, USA. Harmful Algae, 10, 330-336.
Geraci, J.R. and Lounsbury, V.J. (2005). Marine Mammals Ashore: A Fied Guide for Strandings (second edition). Sparks, Maryland
Goldstein, T., Mazet, J.A., Zabka, T.S., Langlois, G., Colegrove, K.M., Silver, M., Bargu, S., Van Dolah, F.,
Leighfield, T., Conrad, P.A., Barakos, J., Williams, D.C., Dennison, S., Haulena and M., Gulland, F.M.
(2008). Novelsymptomatology and changing epidemiology of domoic acid toxicosis in California sea
lions (Zalophus californianus): an increasing risk to marine mammal health.Proceeding of The Royal
Society,267-276.
Gulland, F.M.D. (2000). Domoic Acid Toxicity In California Sea Lions (Zalophus Californianus) Stranded Along
The Central California Coast, May–October 1998 In Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service
Working Group on Unusual Marine Mammal MortalityEvents. NOAA Technical Memorandum,
(pp. 1-48). Washington, DC, USA: US Department of Commerce.
Gulland, F.M.D., Leslie A.D. and Karyl L.W. (2018). CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine.
(pp. 319-327). Boca Raton: Taylor&Francis Group.
Kemmper, C., Gibbs, P., Obendorf, D., Marvanek, S. and Lenghaus, C. (1994). A review of heavy metal and
organochlorine levels in marine mammals in Australia. The Science of the the Total Environment 154,
129-139
Klumpp, D.W., Howard, R.K. and Pollard, D.A. (1989). Trophodynamic and nutritional ecology of seagrass
communities. InA.D.W. Larkum, A.J. Mccomb and S.A. Shepherd. (Eds), Biology of Seagrass.
(pp. 394-457). Oxford: Elsevier.
Kreuder, C, Miller, M.A. and Jessup, D.A.(2003). Patterns of mortality in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris
nereis) from 1998-2001. J Wild Dis, 39, 495-509.
Landsberg, J.H. (2002). The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms. Fisheries Science, 10,
113-390.
Lefebvre, K. A., Sibel, B., Tom, K. and Mary, W.S. (2002). From sanddabs to blue whales: the pervasiveness
of domoic acid. Toxicon, 40, 971 - 977.
Lefebvre, K. A., Alison, R., Elizabeth, R. F., Kathleen, M. C., Shelly, N., Keri, A. B., Heathe,r W. and Frances,
M.D.G. (2010). Clinical signs and histopathology associated with domoic acid poisoning in northern
fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) and comparison of toxin detection methods. Harmful Algae, 9, 374-383.
Lefebvre, K. A., Quakenbush, L., Frame, E., Burek Huntington, K., Sheffield, G., Stimmelmayr, R., Bryan, A.,
Kendrick, P., Ziel, H., Dickerson, B. and Gill, V. (2016). Prevalence of algal toxin in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment. Harmful Algae, 55, 13 - 24.
Law, R.J., Fileman, C. F., Hopkins, A.D., Barker, J.R.., Harwood, J., Jackson, D.B., Kennedy, S. Marin, A.R., and Morris, R.J. (1991). Concentration of trace metals in the livers of marine mammals (Seals, Porpoises and Dolphins) from waters around the British Isles. Marine Pollution Bullen 22, 4, 183-191.
Marine and Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute. (2015). Textbook of marine resources and The coast of thailand. Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. Bangkok (in Thai)
Niyomsilpchai, T. (2010). Epiphytic Diatom on Seagrass Blade at Ban Pa Khlok, Phuket Province. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Prempree, T., Passada, S. and Cherdsukjai P. (2015).13 years Stranded marine endangered species
in upper Gulf of Thailand In Proceeding of The 5th Marine Science Conference. Marine and Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Bangkok. (in Thai)
Quilliam, M.A. (2003). Chemical methods for domoic acid, the amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxin. In G.M.
Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson & A.D. Cembella (Eds), Manual on Harmful Marine Microalage, Monographs on
Oceanographic Methodology Vol II. (pp. 247-265). Paris: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
(UNESCO)
Ramsdell, J.S. and Zabka, T.S. (2008). In utero domoic acid toxicity: a fetal basis to adult disease in the
California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Mar Drugs, 6(2), 262–290.
Royal Thai Government Gazette. (2018). Criteria for Toxins and Bacteria in Bivalve, 2018. 161 : (pp. 47-48).
(in Thai)
Rungsupa, S., Songroop, C., Piumsomboon, A., Papawasit, N., Panichpol, A. and Sopon, A. (2003). Red tide
situation. In Concurrent examination of the occurrence of red tide. Pollution Control Department and
Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University. (pp.74-104). Bangkok. (in Thai)
Sand-Jensen, K. (1977). Effect of epiphytes on eelgrass photosynthesis. Aquatic Botany, 3, 55-63.
Scholin, C.A., Gulland, F., Doucette, G.J., Benson, S., Busman M., Chavez, F.P., Cordaro, J., DeLong, R.,
De Vogelaere, A., Harvey, J., Haulena, M., Lefebvre, K., Lipscomb, T., Loscutoff, S., Lowenstine, L.J.,
Marin III, R., Miller, P.E., McLellan, W.A., Moeller, P.D.R., Powell, C.L., Rowles, T., Silvagni, P., Silver, M.,
Spraker, T., Trainer, V. and Van Dolah, F.M. (2000). Mortality of sea lions along the central California
coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature, 403, 80-84.
Silvagni, P., Lowenstine, L.J, Spraker, T., Lipscomb, T.P. and Gulland, F.M. (2005). Pathology of domoic acid
toxicityin California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Vet. Pathol, 42, 184-191
Songroop, C. (2003). Monitoring of harmful phytoplankton for coastal aquaculture at Sichang Marine Science
Research and Training Station. In Proceeding of Conference on Water Resources and Environment.
Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Bangkok. (in Thai)
Suphannthavanich, C. (1994). Epiphytic communities on Blades of Enhalas acoroides (Linnacus f.) Royle at Laem
Yong Lum Had Chao Mai Nation Park, Trang Province. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University.
Bangkok. (in Thai)
Twiner, M. J., Spencer, F., Lori, S., Leigh, D., Zhihong, W., Steve, M., Stephen, R., Brian, B., Teresa, K. R. and
Randall, S. W. (2011). Concurrent Exposure of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) to Multiple Algal
Toxins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, USA. PLOS ONE, 6, 7, 1-15.
Twiner, M.J., Flewelling, L.J., Fire S.E., Bowen-Stevens, S.R., Gaydos, J.K., Johnson, C.K., Landsberg,
J.H., Leighfield, T.A., Mase-Guthrie, B., Schwacke, L., Van Dolah, F.M., Wang, Z. and Rowles, T.K.
(2012). Comparative Analysis of Three Brevetoxin-Associated Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Mortality Events in the Florida Panhandle Region (USA). PLOS ONE, 7, 1-19.
Veschasit, O. (2017). Machanism of Domoic Acid Contamination in Marine Organisms: A Case Study East Coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Thesis: Doctor of Philosophy. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Viscoano, P., Maria S., Miriam B., Anna M., Rosanna T. and Giovanna S. (2016). Marine Biotoxins:
Occurrence, Toxicity, Regulatory Limits and Reference Methods. Frontiers in Microbiology,7, Article 1051
WDCS-NA (2018). Whale and Dolphin Socie’. , Retrieved Mar 25, 2019, from http://www.wdcs-na.org/:
Wisespongpand, P., Patarajinda S. and Aryuttaka C. (2002). Screening of seagrass extracts for biological activity. Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Marine Science Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Yoosamran, C., Khantavong, A. and Rerrmdunri, S. (2006). Relationships between water qualities and phytoplankton at Sriracha Bay, Chonburi province In Proceedings of 44th Kasetsart University Annual Conference : Fisheries. (pp. 511-517). Kasetsart University: Bangkok (in Thai)
and Turtles of Thailand. Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. Bangkok (in Thai)
Bargu, S., Mary S., Tracey, G., Kathryn, R., Frances, G. (2010). Complexity of domoic acid-related sea lion
strandings in Monterey Bay, California: foraging patterns, climate events, and toxic blooms,Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 418, 213-222.
Bargu, S., Goldstein, T., Roberts, K., Li, C. and Gulland, F. (2012). Pseudo-nitzschia bloom, domoic acid, and
related California sea lion stranding in Montrrey Bay, California. Marine Mammal Science, 28(2),
237 - 253.
Borwizka, M. A. and Lethbridge R.C. (1989). Seagrass epiphytes. In A.D.W. Larkum, A.J. Mccomb and S.A.
Shepherd. (Eds), Biology of Seagrass. (pp. 458-499). Oxford: Elsevier.
Chotiyanwong, N. (1994). Biology and electron microscopic structure of the diatom Nitzschia sp. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Chumnantana, R. (2006). Causative Phytoplankton of Red tide Phenomena in The Upper Gulf of Thailand. Technical paper no. 1/2006, Phuket Marine Biological Center, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (in Thai)
De la Riva, G.T., Christine, K. J., Jonna, A.K. M., Frances, M.D.G., Gregg, L., John, H., Teri, R. (2006). Marine
Mammal Strandings Along the Southern California Coast Associated With Domoic Acid Producing Algal
Blooms. In IAAAM Conference Proceeding. Retrieved Sep 15, 2018, from https://www.vin.com/apputil/
content/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11215&meta=Generic&catId=31320&id=3981151&ind=117&objTypeID=17
De la Riva, G.T., Johnson, C.K., Gulland, F.M.D., Langlois, G.W., Heyning, J.E., Rowles,T.K. and Mazet, J.A.K. (2009). Association of an unusual marine mammal mortality event with Pseudo-nitzschia spp. blooms along the Southern California coastline. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 45, 109-121.
Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. (2018). Central database and standards for marine and coastal
resources. Retrieved September 3, 2018. from https://km.dmcr.go.th/th/c_10/d_935 (in Thai)
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Leighfield, T.A., Morton, S.L., McFee, W.E., McLellan, W.A., Litake,r R.W., Tester, P.W.,
Hohn, A.A., Lovewell, G., Harms, C., Rotstein, D.S., Barco, S.G., Costidis, A., Sheppard, B., Bossart
G.D., Stolen, M., Durden, W.N. and Van Dolah, F.M. (2009). Domoic acid exposure in pygmy and dwarf
sperm whales (Kogia spp.) from southeastern and mid-Atlantic U.S. waters.Harmful Algae, 8, 658-664.
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Berman, M., Langlois, G.W., Morton, S.L., Sekula-Wood, E. and Benitez-Nelson, C.R.
(2010). Trophic Transfer of the Harmful Algal Toxin Domoic Acid as a Cause of Death in a Minke Whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata) Stranding in Southern California. Aquatic Mammals, 36(4), 342-350.
Fire, S.E., Wang, Z., Byrd, M., Whitehead, H.R., Paternoster, J. and Morton, S.L. (2011). Co-occurrence of multiple classes of harmful algal toxins in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) stranding during an unusual mortality event in Texas, USA. Harmful Algae, 10, 330-336.
Geraci, J.R. and Lounsbury, V.J. (2005). Marine Mammals Ashore: A Fied Guide for Strandings (second edition). Sparks, Maryland
Goldstein, T., Mazet, J.A., Zabka, T.S., Langlois, G., Colegrove, K.M., Silver, M., Bargu, S., Van Dolah, F.,
Leighfield, T., Conrad, P.A., Barakos, J., Williams, D.C., Dennison, S., Haulena and M., Gulland, F.M.
(2008). Novelsymptomatology and changing epidemiology of domoic acid toxicosis in California sea
lions (Zalophus californianus): an increasing risk to marine mammal health.Proceeding of The Royal
Society,267-276.
Gulland, F.M.D. (2000). Domoic Acid Toxicity In California Sea Lions (Zalophus Californianus) Stranded Along
The Central California Coast, May–October 1998 In Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service
Working Group on Unusual Marine Mammal MortalityEvents. NOAA Technical Memorandum,
(pp. 1-48). Washington, DC, USA: US Department of Commerce.
Gulland, F.M.D., Leslie A.D. and Karyl L.W. (2018). CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine.
(pp. 319-327). Boca Raton: Taylor&Francis Group.
Kemmper, C., Gibbs, P., Obendorf, D., Marvanek, S. and Lenghaus, C. (1994). A review of heavy metal and
organochlorine levels in marine mammals in Australia. The Science of the the Total Environment 154,
129-139
Klumpp, D.W., Howard, R.K. and Pollard, D.A. (1989). Trophodynamic and nutritional ecology of seagrass
communities. InA.D.W. Larkum, A.J. Mccomb and S.A. Shepherd. (Eds), Biology of Seagrass.
(pp. 394-457). Oxford: Elsevier.
Kreuder, C, Miller, M.A. and Jessup, D.A.(2003). Patterns of mortality in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris
nereis) from 1998-2001. J Wild Dis, 39, 495-509.
Landsberg, J.H. (2002). The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms. Fisheries Science, 10,
113-390.
Lefebvre, K. A., Sibel, B., Tom, K. and Mary, W.S. (2002). From sanddabs to blue whales: the pervasiveness
of domoic acid. Toxicon, 40, 971 - 977.
Lefebvre, K. A., Alison, R., Elizabeth, R. F., Kathleen, M. C., Shelly, N., Keri, A. B., Heathe,r W. and Frances,
M.D.G. (2010). Clinical signs and histopathology associated with domoic acid poisoning in northern
fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) and comparison of toxin detection methods. Harmful Algae, 9, 374-383.
Lefebvre, K. A., Quakenbush, L., Frame, E., Burek Huntington, K., Sheffield, G., Stimmelmayr, R., Bryan, A.,
Kendrick, P., Ziel, H., Dickerson, B. and Gill, V. (2016). Prevalence of algal toxin in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment. Harmful Algae, 55, 13 - 24.
Law, R.J., Fileman, C. F., Hopkins, A.D., Barker, J.R.., Harwood, J., Jackson, D.B., Kennedy, S. Marin, A.R., and Morris, R.J. (1991). Concentration of trace metals in the livers of marine mammals (Seals, Porpoises and Dolphins) from waters around the British Isles. Marine Pollution Bullen 22, 4, 183-191.
Marine and Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute. (2015). Textbook of marine resources and The coast of thailand. Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. Bangkok (in Thai)
Niyomsilpchai, T. (2010). Epiphytic Diatom on Seagrass Blade at Ban Pa Khlok, Phuket Province. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Prempree, T., Passada, S. and Cherdsukjai P. (2015).13 years Stranded marine endangered species
in upper Gulf of Thailand In Proceeding of The 5th Marine Science Conference. Marine and Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Bangkok. (in Thai)
Quilliam, M.A. (2003). Chemical methods for domoic acid, the amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxin. In G.M.
Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson & A.D. Cembella (Eds), Manual on Harmful Marine Microalage, Monographs on
Oceanographic Methodology Vol II. (pp. 247-265). Paris: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
(UNESCO)
Ramsdell, J.S. and Zabka, T.S. (2008). In utero domoic acid toxicity: a fetal basis to adult disease in the
California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Mar Drugs, 6(2), 262–290.
Royal Thai Government Gazette. (2018). Criteria for Toxins and Bacteria in Bivalve, 2018. 161 : (pp. 47-48).
(in Thai)
Rungsupa, S., Songroop, C., Piumsomboon, A., Papawasit, N., Panichpol, A. and Sopon, A. (2003). Red tide
situation. In Concurrent examination of the occurrence of red tide. Pollution Control Department and
Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University. (pp.74-104). Bangkok. (in Thai)
Sand-Jensen, K. (1977). Effect of epiphytes on eelgrass photosynthesis. Aquatic Botany, 3, 55-63.
Scholin, C.A., Gulland, F., Doucette, G.J., Benson, S., Busman M., Chavez, F.P., Cordaro, J., DeLong, R.,
De Vogelaere, A., Harvey, J., Haulena, M., Lefebvre, K., Lipscomb, T., Loscutoff, S., Lowenstine, L.J.,
Marin III, R., Miller, P.E., McLellan, W.A., Moeller, P.D.R., Powell, C.L., Rowles, T., Silvagni, P., Silver, M.,
Spraker, T., Trainer, V. and Van Dolah, F.M. (2000). Mortality of sea lions along the central California
coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature, 403, 80-84.
Silvagni, P., Lowenstine, L.J, Spraker, T., Lipscomb, T.P. and Gulland, F.M. (2005). Pathology of domoic acid
toxicityin California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Vet. Pathol, 42, 184-191
Songroop, C. (2003). Monitoring of harmful phytoplankton for coastal aquaculture at Sichang Marine Science
Research and Training Station. In Proceeding of Conference on Water Resources and Environment.
Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Bangkok. (in Thai)
Suphannthavanich, C. (1994). Epiphytic communities on Blades of Enhalas acoroides (Linnacus f.) Royle at Laem
Yong Lum Had Chao Mai Nation Park, Trang Province. Thesis: Master of Science. Kasetsart University.
Bangkok. (in Thai)
Twiner, M. J., Spencer, F., Lori, S., Leigh, D., Zhihong, W., Steve, M., Stephen, R., Brian, B., Teresa, K. R. and
Randall, S. W. (2011). Concurrent Exposure of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) to Multiple Algal
Toxins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, USA. PLOS ONE, 6, 7, 1-15.
Twiner, M.J., Flewelling, L.J., Fire S.E., Bowen-Stevens, S.R., Gaydos, J.K., Johnson, C.K., Landsberg,
J.H., Leighfield, T.A., Mase-Guthrie, B., Schwacke, L., Van Dolah, F.M., Wang, Z. and Rowles, T.K.
(2012). Comparative Analysis of Three Brevetoxin-Associated Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Mortality Events in the Florida Panhandle Region (USA). PLOS ONE, 7, 1-19.
Veschasit, O. (2017). Machanism of Domoic Acid Contamination in Marine Organisms: A Case Study East Coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Thesis: Doctor of Philosophy. Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Viscoano, P., Maria S., Miriam B., Anna M., Rosanna T. and Giovanna S. (2016). Marine Biotoxins:
Occurrence, Toxicity, Regulatory Limits and Reference Methods. Frontiers in Microbiology,7, Article 1051
WDCS-NA (2018). Whale and Dolphin Socie’. , Retrieved Mar 25, 2019, from http://www.wdcs-na.org/:
Wisespongpand, P., Patarajinda S. and Aryuttaka C. (2002). Screening of seagrass extracts for biological activity. Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Marine Science Kasetsart University. Bangkok (in Thai)
Yoosamran, C., Khantavong, A. and Rerrmdunri, S. (2006). Relationships between water qualities and phytoplankton at Sriracha Bay, Chonburi province In Proceedings of 44th Kasetsart University Annual Conference : Fisheries. (pp. 511-517). Kasetsart University: Bangkok (in Thai)
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