Creation of Nanoparticle Carotenoid from Crude Palm Oil to Enhancing the Skin Color of Goldfish (Carassius auratus)
Abstract
Production and trade of ornamental fish are profitable because of their aesthetic value. Fish that have particular colors and shapes are supplied to fulfill customer orders. Natural pigment is added to the skin color of ornamental fish by feed but reduction in ability of pigment absorption can cause color deterioration. Development of nanoparticle carotenoid from crude palm oil was studied to enhance goldfish skin color. Carotenoid nanoparticles were created by an ionotropic gelation process. A prepared solution containing carotenoids was freeze-dried and captured by a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Mean particle diameter was determined as 131.56 ± 32.35 nm with Image J program and particle size and electrical potential of the surfaces were assessed using a Zetasizer, mean diameter was 177.567±14.00 nm with electrical potential of -30.233 ± 0.702 mV. NPC was incorporated into the feed at 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 µg kg-1 feed and fed to goldfish for 8 weeks. Measurement of goldfish color was performed by the CIE (L*, a*, b*) and (L*, c*, h*) system. The goldfish skin color intensity measured by CIE had shown that the fish fed with 500 µg kg-1 containing significantly highest skin color (p<0.05) without interfering on growth rate, survival rate and other side effect was not observed. Keywords : carotenoid, goldfish, nanoparticle, enhancing color, pigmentationReferences
Almeida, E. S., Carvalho, A. C. B., Soares, I. O. d. S., Valadares, L. F., Mendonça, A. R. V., Silva Jr, I. J., & Monteiro, S. (2019). Elucidating how two different types of bleaching earths widely used in vegetable oils industry remove carotenes from palm oil: Equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamic parameters. Food Research International, 121, 785-797. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.12.061
AOAC. (2000). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (William Horwitz Ed. 17th ed.).
Arpagaus, C., Collenberg, A., Rütti, D., Assadpour, E., & Jafari, S. M. (2018). Nano spray drying for encapsulation of pharmaceuticals. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 546(1), 194-214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.05.037
Badilli, U., Gumustas, M., Uslu, B., & Ozkan, S. A. (2018). Chapter 9 - Lipid-based nanoparticles for dermal drug delivery. In A. M. Grumezescu (Ed.), Organic Materials as Smart Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery (pp. 369-413): William Andrew Publishing.
Bandyopadhyay, P., Swain, S. K., & Mishra, S. (2005). Growth and dietary utilisation in goldfish (Carassius auratus Linn.) fed diets formulated with various local agro-produces. Bioresource Technology, 96(6), 731-740. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.018
Bell, N. A., Jeffrey, S., MacIsaac, J. L., & Colombo, S. M. (2019). The effect of lobster meal on the growth performance and pigmentation of the common goldfish (Carassius auratus). Aquaculture Reports, 13, 100187. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100187
Bjerkeng, B. (2008). Carotenoids in Aquaculture: Fish and Crustaceans. In G. Britton, S. Liaaen-Jensen, & H. Pfander (Eds.), Carotenoids: Volume 4: Natural Functions (pp. 237-254). Basel: Birkhäuser Basel.
Brum, A. A. S., Santos, P. P. d., Silva, M. M. d., Paese, K., Guterres, S. S., Costa, T. M. H., Rios, A. d. O. (2017). Lutein-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules: Physicochemical characterization and stability evaluation. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 522, 477-484. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.03.041
Bundit, Y., Orapint, J., Nontavit, A., & Arunee, I. (2008). Utilization of Carotenoids in Fancy Carp (Cyprinus carprio). Journal of Fisheries Technology Research, 2(2), 44-54.
Chapman, F. A., & Miles, R. D. (2018). How Ornamental Fishes Get Their Color. 1-6. Retrieved from https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FA/FA19200.pdf
Chen, J., Li, F., Li, Z., McClements, D. J., & Xiao, H. (2017). Encapsulation of carotenoids in emulsion-based delivery systems: Enhancement of β-carotene water-dispersibility and chemical stability. Food Hydrocolloids, 69, 49-55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.01.024
Chen, L., Yokoyama, W., Liang, R., & Zhong, F. (2020). Enzymatic degradation and bioaccessibility of protein encapsulated β-carotene nano-emulsions during in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, 105177. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105177
Chiu, M. C., de Morais Coutinho, C., & Gonçalves, L. A. G. (2009). Carotenoids concentration of palm oil using membrane technology. Desalination, 245(1), 783-786. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.03.002
Christian, L. A., Zhao, J., & Wu, J.-W. (2018). Replacement of fish oil with palm oil: Effects on growth performance, innate immune response, antioxidant capacity and disease resistance in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). PloS one, 13(4), 1-17. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196100
da Cunha, L., Besen, K. P., Ha, N., Uczay, J., Skoronski, E., & Fabregat, T. E. H. P. (2020). Biofloc technology (BFT) improves skin pigmentation of goldfish (Carassius auratus). Aquaculture, 522, 735132. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735132
Das, A. P., & Biswas, S. P. (2016). Carotenoids and Pigmentation in Ornamental Fish. Aquaculture & Marine Biology, 4(4). doi:10.15406/jamb.2016.04.00093
Fairchild, M. D. (2013). Color Order Systems. In third (Ed.), Color Appearance Models (pp. 471): John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Gouveia, L., Rema, P., Pereira, O., & Empis, J. (2003). Colouring ornamental fish (Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus) with microalgal biomass. Aquaculture Nutrition, 9(2), 123-129. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2095.2003.00233.x
Hekimoglu, M. A., Fırat, M. K., Saka, Ş., Suzer, C., Kop, A., & Durmaz, Y. (2017). Effect of Supplemented Algal Carotenoid Diets on Skin Color of Tomato Clownfish, Amphiprion frenatus. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 49, 663-668. doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/2017.49.2.663.668
Ho, A. L. F. C., Orlando Bertran, N. M., & Lin, J. (2013). Dietary Esterified Astaxanthin Concentration Effect on Dermal Coloration and Chromatophore Physiology in Spinecheek Anemonefish, Premnas biaculeatus. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 44(1), 76-85. doi:10.1111/jwas.12010
Lertsutthiwong, P., Noomun, K., Jongaroonngamsang, N., Rojsitthisak, P., & Nimmannit, U. (2008). Preparation of alginate nanocapsules containing turmeric oil. Carbohydrate Polymers, 74(2), 209-214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.02.009
Li, F., Huang, S., Lu, X., Wang, J., Lin, M., An, Y., . . . Cai, M. (2018). Effects of dietary supplementation with algal astaxanthin on growth, pigmentation, and antioxidant capacity of the blood parrot (Cichlasoma citrinellum × Cichlasoma synspilum). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 36(5), 1851-1859. doi:10.1007/s00343-019-7172-7
Mazzoli, A., & Favoni, O. (2012). Particle size, size distribution and morphological evaluation of airborne dust particles of diverse woods by Scanning Electron Microscopy and image processing program. Powder Technology, 225, 65-71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.03.033
Ng, W.-K. (2002). Potential of palm oil utilisation in aquaculture feeds. Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition, 11 Suppl 7, S473-476. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s.7.7.x
Ninwichian, P., Chookird, D., & Phuwan, N. (2020). Effects of dietary supplementation with natural carotenoid sources on growth performance and skin coloration of fancy carp, Cyprinus carpio L. IFRO, 19(1), 167-181. Retrieved from http://jifro.ir/article-1-1940-en.html
Pestovsky, Y. S., & Martínez-Antonio, A. (2019). The Synthesis of Alginate Microparticles and Nanoparticles. Drug designing & intellectual properties international journal, 3(1), 293-327. doi:10.32474/DDIPIJ.2019.03.000155
Ping, T. Y., & Gwendoline, E. C. L. (2006). Identification of lutein in crude palm oil and evaluation of carotenoids at various ripening stages of the oil palm fruit. Oil palm research, 18, 189-197.
Ribeiro, J. A. A., Almeida, E. S., Neto, B. A. D., Abdelnur, P. V., & Monteiro, S. (2018). Identification of carotenoid isomers in crude and bleached palm oils by mass spectrometry. LWT, 89, 631-637. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.11.039
Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B., & Kimura, M. (2004). Harvestplus Handbook for Carotenoid Analysis. In HarvestPlus Technical Monograph 2. (2004-01-01 ed., pp. 58). Washington, DC and Cali: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).
Sergeev, G. B., & Klabunde, K. J. (2013). Chapter 9 - Organic Nanoparticles. In G. B. Sergeev & K. J. Klabunde (Eds.), Nanochemistry (Second Edition) (pp. 235-274). Oxford: Elsevier.
Silva, S. M., Sampaio, K. A., Ceriani, R., Verhé, R., Stevens, C., De Greyt, W., & Meirelles, A. J. A. (2013). Adsorption of carotenes and phosphorus from palm oil onto acid activated bleaching earth: Equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamics. Journal of Food Engineering, 118(4), 341-349. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.04.026
Silva, S. M., Sampaio, K. A., Ceriani, R., Verhé, R., Stevens, C., De Greyt, W., & Meirelles, A. J. A. (2014). Effect of type of bleaching earth on the final color of refined palm oil. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 59(2, Part 2), 1258-1264. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.05.028
Sun, X., Chang, Y., Ye, Y., Ma, Z., Liang, Y., Li, T., . . . Luo, L. (2012). The effect of dietary pigments on the coloration of Japanese ornamental carp (koi, Cyprinus carpio L.). Aquaculture, 342-343, 62-68. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.02.019
Suyom, J. C. (2020). Effect of light and dark background color on the growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) fingerlings reared in aquaria. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 8,
236-238.
Villar-Martínez, A. A. d., Orbe-Rogel, J. C., Vanegas-Espinoza, P. E., QuinteroGutiérrez, A. G., & Lara-Flores, M. (2013). The effect of marigold (Tagetes erecta) as natural carotenoid source for the pigmentation of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Research Journal of Fisheries and Hydrobiology, 8(2), 31-37. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d8ea/bd1f490821b8100b4ce06b981c3e5cc3e2d7.pdf
Wallat, G. K., Lazur, A. M., & Chapman, F. A. (2005). Carotenoids of Different Types and Concentrations in Commercial Formulated Fish Diets Affect Color and Its Development in the Skin of the Red Oranda Variety of Goldfish. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 67(1), 42-51. doi:10.1577/FA03-062.1
Worranan, R., & Tanasait, N. (2015). Characterization of liposomes for transdermal drug delivery system. Thai Bulletin of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 10, 61-74. doi:https://doi.org/10.14456/tbps.2015.4
Yahia, E. M. (2018). Chemistry, Stability, and Biological Actions of Carotenoids. In E. M. Yahia (Ed.), Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals (pp. 1414). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Yanar, M., Erçen, Z., Özlüer Hunt, A., & Büyükçapar, H. M. (2008). The use of alfalfa, Medicago sativa as a natural carotenoid source in diets of goldfish, Carassius auratus. Aquaculture, 284(1), 196-200. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.07.050
Yanong, R. P. E. (1999). Nutrition of Ornamental Fish. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 2(1), 19-42. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1094-9194(17)30138-X
Zou, Y., Jiang, Y., Yang, T., Hu, P., & Xu, X. (2012). 16 - Minor Constituents of Palm Oil: Characterization, Processing, and Application. In O.-M. Lai, C.-P. Tan, & C. C. Akoh (Eds.), Palm Oil (pp. 471-526): AOCS Press.
AOAC. (2000). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (William Horwitz Ed. 17th ed.).
Arpagaus, C., Collenberg, A., Rütti, D., Assadpour, E., & Jafari, S. M. (2018). Nano spray drying for encapsulation of pharmaceuticals. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 546(1), 194-214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.05.037
Badilli, U., Gumustas, M., Uslu, B., & Ozkan, S. A. (2018). Chapter 9 - Lipid-based nanoparticles for dermal drug delivery. In A. M. Grumezescu (Ed.), Organic Materials as Smart Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery (pp. 369-413): William Andrew Publishing.
Bandyopadhyay, P., Swain, S. K., & Mishra, S. (2005). Growth and dietary utilisation in goldfish (Carassius auratus Linn.) fed diets formulated with various local agro-produces. Bioresource Technology, 96(6), 731-740. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.018
Bell, N. A., Jeffrey, S., MacIsaac, J. L., & Colombo, S. M. (2019). The effect of lobster meal on the growth performance and pigmentation of the common goldfish (Carassius auratus). Aquaculture Reports, 13, 100187. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100187
Bjerkeng, B. (2008). Carotenoids in Aquaculture: Fish and Crustaceans. In G. Britton, S. Liaaen-Jensen, & H. Pfander (Eds.), Carotenoids: Volume 4: Natural Functions (pp. 237-254). Basel: Birkhäuser Basel.
Brum, A. A. S., Santos, P. P. d., Silva, M. M. d., Paese, K., Guterres, S. S., Costa, T. M. H., Rios, A. d. O. (2017). Lutein-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules: Physicochemical characterization and stability evaluation. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 522, 477-484. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.03.041
Bundit, Y., Orapint, J., Nontavit, A., & Arunee, I. (2008). Utilization of Carotenoids in Fancy Carp (Cyprinus carprio). Journal of Fisheries Technology Research, 2(2), 44-54.
Chapman, F. A., & Miles, R. D. (2018). How Ornamental Fishes Get Their Color. 1-6. Retrieved from https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FA/FA19200.pdf
Chen, J., Li, F., Li, Z., McClements, D. J., & Xiao, H. (2017). Encapsulation of carotenoids in emulsion-based delivery systems: Enhancement of β-carotene water-dispersibility and chemical stability. Food Hydrocolloids, 69, 49-55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.01.024
Chen, L., Yokoyama, W., Liang, R., & Zhong, F. (2020). Enzymatic degradation and bioaccessibility of protein encapsulated β-carotene nano-emulsions during in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, 105177. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105177
Chiu, M. C., de Morais Coutinho, C., & Gonçalves, L. A. G. (2009). Carotenoids concentration of palm oil using membrane technology. Desalination, 245(1), 783-786. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.03.002
Christian, L. A., Zhao, J., & Wu, J.-W. (2018). Replacement of fish oil with palm oil: Effects on growth performance, innate immune response, antioxidant capacity and disease resistance in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). PloS one, 13(4), 1-17. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196100
da Cunha, L., Besen, K. P., Ha, N., Uczay, J., Skoronski, E., & Fabregat, T. E. H. P. (2020). Biofloc technology (BFT) improves skin pigmentation of goldfish (Carassius auratus). Aquaculture, 522, 735132. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735132
Das, A. P., & Biswas, S. P. (2016). Carotenoids and Pigmentation in Ornamental Fish. Aquaculture & Marine Biology, 4(4). doi:10.15406/jamb.2016.04.00093
Fairchild, M. D. (2013). Color Order Systems. In third (Ed.), Color Appearance Models (pp. 471): John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Gouveia, L., Rema, P., Pereira, O., & Empis, J. (2003). Colouring ornamental fish (Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus) with microalgal biomass. Aquaculture Nutrition, 9(2), 123-129. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2095.2003.00233.x
Hekimoglu, M. A., Fırat, M. K., Saka, Ş., Suzer, C., Kop, A., & Durmaz, Y. (2017). Effect of Supplemented Algal Carotenoid Diets on Skin Color of Tomato Clownfish, Amphiprion frenatus. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 49, 663-668. doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/2017.49.2.663.668
Ho, A. L. F. C., Orlando Bertran, N. M., & Lin, J. (2013). Dietary Esterified Astaxanthin Concentration Effect on Dermal Coloration and Chromatophore Physiology in Spinecheek Anemonefish, Premnas biaculeatus. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 44(1), 76-85. doi:10.1111/jwas.12010
Lertsutthiwong, P., Noomun, K., Jongaroonngamsang, N., Rojsitthisak, P., & Nimmannit, U. (2008). Preparation of alginate nanocapsules containing turmeric oil. Carbohydrate Polymers, 74(2), 209-214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.02.009
Li, F., Huang, S., Lu, X., Wang, J., Lin, M., An, Y., . . . Cai, M. (2018). Effects of dietary supplementation with algal astaxanthin on growth, pigmentation, and antioxidant capacity of the blood parrot (Cichlasoma citrinellum × Cichlasoma synspilum). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 36(5), 1851-1859. doi:10.1007/s00343-019-7172-7
Mazzoli, A., & Favoni, O. (2012). Particle size, size distribution and morphological evaluation of airborne dust particles of diverse woods by Scanning Electron Microscopy and image processing program. Powder Technology, 225, 65-71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.03.033
Ng, W.-K. (2002). Potential of palm oil utilisation in aquaculture feeds. Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition, 11 Suppl 7, S473-476. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s.7.7.x
Ninwichian, P., Chookird, D., & Phuwan, N. (2020). Effects of dietary supplementation with natural carotenoid sources on growth performance and skin coloration of fancy carp, Cyprinus carpio L. IFRO, 19(1), 167-181. Retrieved from http://jifro.ir/article-1-1940-en.html
Pestovsky, Y. S., & Martínez-Antonio, A. (2019). The Synthesis of Alginate Microparticles and Nanoparticles. Drug designing & intellectual properties international journal, 3(1), 293-327. doi:10.32474/DDIPIJ.2019.03.000155
Ping, T. Y., & Gwendoline, E. C. L. (2006). Identification of lutein in crude palm oil and evaluation of carotenoids at various ripening stages of the oil palm fruit. Oil palm research, 18, 189-197.
Ribeiro, J. A. A., Almeida, E. S., Neto, B. A. D., Abdelnur, P. V., & Monteiro, S. (2018). Identification of carotenoid isomers in crude and bleached palm oils by mass spectrometry. LWT, 89, 631-637. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.11.039
Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B., & Kimura, M. (2004). Harvestplus Handbook for Carotenoid Analysis. In HarvestPlus Technical Monograph 2. (2004-01-01 ed., pp. 58). Washington, DC and Cali: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).
Sergeev, G. B., & Klabunde, K. J. (2013). Chapter 9 - Organic Nanoparticles. In G. B. Sergeev & K. J. Klabunde (Eds.), Nanochemistry (Second Edition) (pp. 235-274). Oxford: Elsevier.
Silva, S. M., Sampaio, K. A., Ceriani, R., Verhé, R., Stevens, C., De Greyt, W., & Meirelles, A. J. A. (2013). Adsorption of carotenes and phosphorus from palm oil onto acid activated bleaching earth: Equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamics. Journal of Food Engineering, 118(4), 341-349. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.04.026
Silva, S. M., Sampaio, K. A., Ceriani, R., Verhé, R., Stevens, C., De Greyt, W., & Meirelles, A. J. A. (2014). Effect of type of bleaching earth on the final color of refined palm oil. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 59(2, Part 2), 1258-1264. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.05.028
Sun, X., Chang, Y., Ye, Y., Ma, Z., Liang, Y., Li, T., . . . Luo, L. (2012). The effect of dietary pigments on the coloration of Japanese ornamental carp (koi, Cyprinus carpio L.). Aquaculture, 342-343, 62-68. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.02.019
Suyom, J. C. (2020). Effect of light and dark background color on the growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) fingerlings reared in aquaria. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 8,
236-238.
Villar-Martínez, A. A. d., Orbe-Rogel, J. C., Vanegas-Espinoza, P. E., QuinteroGutiérrez, A. G., & Lara-Flores, M. (2013). The effect of marigold (Tagetes erecta) as natural carotenoid source for the pigmentation of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Research Journal of Fisheries and Hydrobiology, 8(2), 31-37. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d8ea/bd1f490821b8100b4ce06b981c3e5cc3e2d7.pdf
Wallat, G. K., Lazur, A. M., & Chapman, F. A. (2005). Carotenoids of Different Types and Concentrations in Commercial Formulated Fish Diets Affect Color and Its Development in the Skin of the Red Oranda Variety of Goldfish. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 67(1), 42-51. doi:10.1577/FA03-062.1
Worranan, R., & Tanasait, N. (2015). Characterization of liposomes for transdermal drug delivery system. Thai Bulletin of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 10, 61-74. doi:https://doi.org/10.14456/tbps.2015.4
Yahia, E. M. (2018). Chemistry, Stability, and Biological Actions of Carotenoids. In E. M. Yahia (Ed.), Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals (pp. 1414). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Yanar, M., Erçen, Z., Özlüer Hunt, A., & Büyükçapar, H. M. (2008). The use of alfalfa, Medicago sativa as a natural carotenoid source in diets of goldfish, Carassius auratus. Aquaculture, 284(1), 196-200. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.07.050
Yanong, R. P. E. (1999). Nutrition of Ornamental Fish. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 2(1), 19-42. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1094-9194(17)30138-X
Zou, Y., Jiang, Y., Yang, T., Hu, P., & Xu, X. (2012). 16 - Minor Constituents of Palm Oil: Characterization, Processing, and Application. In O.-M. Lai, C.-P. Tan, & C. C. Akoh (Eds.), Palm Oil (pp. 471-526): AOCS Press.
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2021-09-06
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