Tenofovir and Renal Toxicity at Cellular Level
Abstract
Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is a high potency of anti-HIV and anti-hepatitis B virus drug. Currently, the limited use of this drug in the clinical setting is nephrotoxicity. The incidence of tenofovir-induced nephropathy is 10 - 22 percent and 5 - 18 percent in Europe and Thai population in respectively. The inhibition properties of mtDNA polymerase g encoded by POLG gene has been proposed to play a central role in tenofovir-induced mitochondrial toxicity which contributed to nephropathy. Although tenofovir has not been studied, admittedly theory is supported that this drug was induced proximal tubular apoptosis by leading to caspase-9 activation as similar as another drug in the classification of nucleotide-analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors such as adefovir and cidofovir. This theory is supported by the observation that Fanconi’s syndrome is the most common renal manifestation of mitochondria cytopathies, there are presented in the most reported cases of tenofovir-associated nephropathy. Moreover, the histopathology that observed under electron microscopy was attest the supported theories because it showed the identical data of mitochondrial enlargement, depletion and dysmorphic changes. However, there is no study was performed to demonstrate the exactly mechanism of tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity at cellular level, in our reviewed during 2006 - 2016, then the further study to demonstrate this effects should be employed. In summary, the most encouraged mechanism of tenofovir-induced nephropathy at cellular level is associated to the inhibition of mtDNA polymerase g enzyme which conduce towards to induced proximal tubular cell apoptosis by leading to caspase - 9 activation. Keyword: tenofovir, mitochondria, glycoprotein, nephrotoxicity, MRPReferences
Abraham, P., Ramamoorthy, H., & Isaac, B. (2013). Depletion of the cellular antioxidant system contributes to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate - induced mitochondrial damage and increased oxido-nitrosative stress in the kidney. J Biomed Sci, 20, 61-72.
Balestrieri, E., Sciortino, M. T., Mastino, A., & Macchi, B. (2005). Protective effect of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonate tenofovir toward human T-cell leukemia/lymphotropic virus type 1 infection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. Antiviral Res, 68(3), 154-162.
Barditch-Crovo, P., Deeks, S. G., Collier, A., Safrin, S., Coakley, D. F., Miller, M., Lietman, P. S. (2001). Phase i/ii trial of the pharmacokinetics, safety, and antiretroviral activity of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45(10), 2733-2739.
Bendele, R. A., & Richardson, F. C. (2002). Adefovir nephrotoxicity and mitochondrial DNA depletion. Hum Pathol, 33(5), 574.
Birkus, G., Hitchcock, M. J., & Cihlar, T. (2002). Assessment of mitochondrial toxicity in human cells treated with tenofovir: comparison with other nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46(3), 716-723.
BOE. (2016). Current situation of HIV/AIDS in Thailand. Retrieved 12/8/2016, 2016, from http://www.boe.moph.go.th/files/report/20151126_87903337.pdf
Buchacz, K., Brooks, J. T., Tong, T., Moorman, A. C., Baker, R. K., Holmberg, S. D., & Greenberg, A. (2006). Evaluation of hypophosphataemia in tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-exposed and TDF-unexposed HIV-infected out-patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med, 7(7), 451-456.
Buchacz, K., Young, B., Baker, R. K., Moorman, A., Chmiel, J. S., Wood, K. C., & Brooks, J. T. (2006). Renal function in patients receiving tenofovir with ritonavir/lopinavir or ritonavir/atazanavir in the HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 43(5), 626-628.
Cooper, R. D., Wiebe, N., Smith, N., Keiser, P., Naicker, S., & Tonelli, M. (2010). Systematic review and meta-analysis: renal safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis, 51(5), 496-505.
Cote, H. C., Magil, A. B., Harris, M., Scarth, B. J., Gadawski, I., Wang, N., Montaner, J. S. (2006). Exploring mitochondrial nephrotoxicity as a potential mechanism of kidney dysfunction among HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther, 11(1), 79-86.
De Clercq, E. (2003). Potential of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates in the treatment of DNA virus and retrovirus infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther, 1(1), 21-43.
Dean, M. (2005). The genetics of ATP-binding cassette transporters. Methods Enzymol, 400, 409-429.
Dean, M., & Annilo, T. (2005). Evolution of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily in vertebrates. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet, 6, 123-142.
Del Palacio, M., Romero, S., & Casado, J. L. (2012). Proximal tubular renal dysfunction or damage in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Rev, 14(3), 179-187.
Delaney, W. E. t., Ray, A. S., Yang, H., Qi, X., Xiong, S., Zhu, Y., & Miller, M. D. (2006). Intracellular metabolism and in vitro activity of tenofovir against hepatitis B virus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50(7), 2471-2477.
Fernandez-Fernandez, B., Montoya-Ferrer, A., Sanz, A. B., Sanchez-Nino, M. D., Izquierdo, M. C., Poveda, J., Ortiz, A. (2011). Tenofovir nephrotoxicity: 2011 update. AIDS Res Treat, 2011, 354908.
Fung, H. B., Stone, E. A., & Piacenti, F. J. (2002). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor for the treatment of HIV infection. Clin Ther, 24(10), 1515-1548.
Gallant, J. E., Parish, M. A., Keruly, J. C., & Moore, R. D. (2005). Changes in renal function associated with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate treatment, compared with nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor treatment. Clin Infect Dis, 40(8), 1194-1198.
Gallant, J. E., Staszewski, S., Pozniak, A. L., DeJesus, E., Suleiman, J. M., Miller, M. D., Cheng, A. K. (2004). Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF vs stavudine in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naive patients: a 3-year randomized trial. Jama, 292(2), 191-201.
Gitman, M. D., Hirschwerk, D., Baskin, C. H., & Singhal, P. C. (2007). Tenofovir-induced kidney injury. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 6(2), 155-164.
Gupta, S. K. (2008). Tenofovir-associated Fanconi syndrome: review of the FDA adverse event reporting system. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 22(2), 99-103.
Hall, A. M., Hendry, B. M., Nitsch, D., & Connolly, J. O. (2011). Tenofovir-associated kidney toxicity in HIV-infected patients: a review of the evidence. Am J Kidney Dis, 57(5), 773-780.
Herlitz, L. C., Mohan, S., Stokes, M. B., Radhakrishnan, J., D'Agati, V. D., & Markowitz, G. S. (2010). Tenofovir nephrotoxicity: acute tubular necrosis with distinctive clinical, pathological, and mitochondrial abnormalities. Kidney Int, 78(11), 1171-1177.
Izzedine, H., Isnard-Bagnis, C., Hulot, J. S., Vittecoq, D., Cheng, A., Jais, C. K., Deray, G. (2004). Renal safety of tenofovir in HIV treatment-experienced patients. Aids, 18(7), 1074-1076.
Jafari, A., Khalili, H., & Dashti-Khavidaki, S. (2014). Tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity: incidence, mechanism, risk factors, prognosis and proposed agents for prevention. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 70(9), 1029-1040.
Kelly, L., Fukushima, H., Karchin, R., Gow, J. M., Chinn, L. W., Pieper, U., Sali, A. (2010). Functional hot spots in human ATP-binding cassette transporter nucleotide binding domains. Protein Sci, 19(11), 2110-2121.
Kiertiburanakul, S., Chaisiri, K., Kasettratat, N., Visuttimak, P., & Bowonwatanuwong, C. (2011). Monitoring of renal function among HIV-Infected patients receiving tenofovir in a resource-limited setting. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic), 10(5), 297-302.
Kohler, J. J., Hosseini, S. H., Green, E., Abuin, A., Ludaway, T., Russ, R., .Lewis, W. (2011). Tenofovir renal proximal tubular toxicity is regulated by OAT1 and MRP4 transporters. Lab Invest, 91(6), 852-858.
Kohler, J. J., Hosseini, S. H., Hoying-Brandt, A., Green, E., Johnson, D. M., Russ, R., .Lewis, W. (2009). Tenofovir renal toxicity targets mitochondria of renal proximal tubules. Lab Invest, 89(5), 513-519.
Krummel, T., Parvez-Braun, L., Frantzen, L., Lalanne, H., Marcellin, L., Hannedouche, T., & Moulin, B. (2005). Tenofovir-induced acute renal failure in an HIV patient with normal renal function. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 20(2), 473-474.
Labarga, P., Barreiro, P., Martin-Carbonero, L., Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Solera, C., Medrano, J., Soriano, V. (2009). Kidney tubular abnormalities in the absence of impaired glomerular function in HIV patients treated with tenofovir. Aids, 23(6),
689-696.
Lebrecht, D., Venhoff, A. C., Kirschner, J., Wiech, T., Venhoff, N., & Walker, U. A. (2009). Mitochondrial tubulopathy in tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-treated rats. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 51(3), 258-263.
Lyseng-Williamson, K. A., Reynolds, N. A., & Plosker, G. L. (2005). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs, 65(3), 413-432.
Madeddu, G., Bonfanti, P., De Socio, G. V., Carradori, S., Grosso, C., Marconi, P., Quirino, T. (2008). Tenofovir renal safety in HIV-infected patients: results from the SCOLTA Project. Biomed Pharmacother, 62(1), 6-11.
Mandikova, J., Volkova, M., Pavek, P., Cesnek, M., Janeba, Z., Kubicek, V., & Trejtnar, F. (2013). Interactions with selected drug renal transporters and transporter-mediated cytotoxicity in antiviral agents from the group of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates. Toxicology, 311(3), 135-146.
Marcellin, P., Heathcote, E. J., Buti, M., Gane, E., de Man, R. A., Krastev, Z., Rousseau, F. (2008). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus adefovir dipivoxil for chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med, 359(23), 2442-2455.
Martin, J. L., Brown, C. E., Matthews-Davis, N., & Reardon, J. E. (1994). Effects of antiviral nucleoside analogs on human DNA polymerases and mitochondrial DNA synthesis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38(12), 2743-2749.
Mocroft, A., & Lundgren, J. D. (2004). Starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: why, when and response to HAART. J Antimicrob Chemother, 54(1), 10-13.
Moyle, G. (2000). Toxicity of antiretroviral nucleoside and nucleotide analogues: is mitochondrial toxicity the only mechanism? Drug Saf, 23(6), 467-481.
Ortiz, A., Justo, P., Sanz, A., Melero, R., Caramelo, C., Guerrero, M. F., Egido, J. (2005). Tubular cell apoptosis and cidofovir-induced acute renal failure. Antivir Ther, 10(1), 185-190.
Perazella, M. A. (2010). Tenofovir-induced kidney disease: an acquired renal tubular mitochondriopathy. Kidney Int, 78(11),
1060-1063.
Pushpakom, S. P., Liptrott, N. J., Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., Soriano, V., Albalater, M., Owen, A. (2011). Genetic variants of ABCC10, a novel tenofovir transporter, are associated with kidney tubular dysfunction. J Infect Dis, 204(1), 145-153.
Ray, A. S., Cihlar, T., Robinson, K. L., Tong, L., Vela, J. E., Fuller, M. D., Rhodes, G. R. (2006). Mechanism of active renal tubular efflux of tenofovir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50(10), 3297-3304.
Ray, A. S., Fordyce, M. W., & Hitchcock, M. J. (2016). Tenofovir alafenamide: A novel prodrug of tenofovir for the treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Antiviral Res, 125, 63-70.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., D'Avolio, A., Barreiro, P., Albalate, M., Vispo, E., Soriano, V. (2010). Impairment in kidney tubular function in patients receiving tenofovir is associated with higher tenofovir plasma concentrations. Aids, 24(7), 1064-1066.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., & Soriano, V. (2009). Pharmacogenetics of tenofovir treatment. Pharmacogenomics, 10(10), 1675-1685.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., Soriano, V., Egan, D., Albalater, M., Morello, J., Owen, A. (2009). Predictors of kidney tubular dysfunction in HIV-infected patients treated with tenofovir: a pharmacogenetic study. Clin Infect Dis, 48(11), e108-116.
Scott, J. D., Wolfe, P. R., Bolan, R. K., & Guyer, B. (2006). Serious renal impairment occurs rarely with use of tenofovir DF. HIV Clin Trials, 7(2), 55-58.
Stefkova, J., Poledne, R., & Hubacek, J. A. (2004). ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in human metabolism and diseases. Physiol Res, 53(3), 235-243.
Taneva, E., Crooker, K., Park, S. H., Su, J. T., Ott, A., Cheshenko, N., Herold, B. C. (2015). Differential mechanisms of tenofovir and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate cellular transport and implications for topical preexposure prophylaxis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 60(3), 1667-1675.
Tanji, N., Tanji, K., Kambham, N., Markowitz, G. S., Bell, A., & D'Agati V. D. (2001). Adefovir nephrotoxicity: possible role of mitochondrial DNA depletion. Hum Pathol, 32(7), 734-740.
Verhelst, D., Monge, M., Meynard, J. L., Fouqueray, B., Mougenot, B., Girard, P. M., Rossert, J. (2002). Fanconi syndrome and renal failure induced by tenofovir: a first case report. Am J Kidney Dis, 40(6), 1331-1333.
WHO. (2016, 13/8/59). World Health Oraganization. 2015 Global summary of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Retrieved 13/8/59, 2016, from http://www.who.int/hiv/data/epi_core_2016.png?ua=1
Winston, A., Amin, J., Mallon, P., Marriott, D., Carr, A., Cooper, D. A., & Emery, S. (2006). Minor changes in calculated creatinine clearance and anion-gap are associated with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-containing highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med, 7(2), 105-111.
Zimmermann, A. E., Pizzoferrato, T., Bedford, J., Morris, A., Hoffman, R., & Braden, G. (2006). Tenofovir-associated acute and chronic kidney disease: a case of multiple drug interactions. Clin Infect Dis, 42(2), 283-290.
Balestrieri, E., Sciortino, M. T., Mastino, A., & Macchi, B. (2005). Protective effect of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonate tenofovir toward human T-cell leukemia/lymphotropic virus type 1 infection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. Antiviral Res, 68(3), 154-162.
Barditch-Crovo, P., Deeks, S. G., Collier, A., Safrin, S., Coakley, D. F., Miller, M., Lietman, P. S. (2001). Phase i/ii trial of the pharmacokinetics, safety, and antiretroviral activity of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45(10), 2733-2739.
Bendele, R. A., & Richardson, F. C. (2002). Adefovir nephrotoxicity and mitochondrial DNA depletion. Hum Pathol, 33(5), 574.
Birkus, G., Hitchcock, M. J., & Cihlar, T. (2002). Assessment of mitochondrial toxicity in human cells treated with tenofovir: comparison with other nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46(3), 716-723.
BOE. (2016). Current situation of HIV/AIDS in Thailand. Retrieved 12/8/2016, 2016, from http://www.boe.moph.go.th/files/report/20151126_87903337.pdf
Buchacz, K., Brooks, J. T., Tong, T., Moorman, A. C., Baker, R. K., Holmberg, S. D., & Greenberg, A. (2006). Evaluation of hypophosphataemia in tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-exposed and TDF-unexposed HIV-infected out-patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med, 7(7), 451-456.
Buchacz, K., Young, B., Baker, R. K., Moorman, A., Chmiel, J. S., Wood, K. C., & Brooks, J. T. (2006). Renal function in patients receiving tenofovir with ritonavir/lopinavir or ritonavir/atazanavir in the HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 43(5), 626-628.
Cooper, R. D., Wiebe, N., Smith, N., Keiser, P., Naicker, S., & Tonelli, M. (2010). Systematic review and meta-analysis: renal safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis, 51(5), 496-505.
Cote, H. C., Magil, A. B., Harris, M., Scarth, B. J., Gadawski, I., Wang, N., Montaner, J. S. (2006). Exploring mitochondrial nephrotoxicity as a potential mechanism of kidney dysfunction among HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther, 11(1), 79-86.
De Clercq, E. (2003). Potential of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates in the treatment of DNA virus and retrovirus infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther, 1(1), 21-43.
Dean, M. (2005). The genetics of ATP-binding cassette transporters. Methods Enzymol, 400, 409-429.
Dean, M., & Annilo, T. (2005). Evolution of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily in vertebrates. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet, 6, 123-142.
Del Palacio, M., Romero, S., & Casado, J. L. (2012). Proximal tubular renal dysfunction or damage in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Rev, 14(3), 179-187.
Delaney, W. E. t., Ray, A. S., Yang, H., Qi, X., Xiong, S., Zhu, Y., & Miller, M. D. (2006). Intracellular metabolism and in vitro activity of tenofovir against hepatitis B virus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50(7), 2471-2477.
Fernandez-Fernandez, B., Montoya-Ferrer, A., Sanz, A. B., Sanchez-Nino, M. D., Izquierdo, M. C., Poveda, J., Ortiz, A. (2011). Tenofovir nephrotoxicity: 2011 update. AIDS Res Treat, 2011, 354908.
Fung, H. B., Stone, E. A., & Piacenti, F. J. (2002). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor for the treatment of HIV infection. Clin Ther, 24(10), 1515-1548.
Gallant, J. E., Parish, M. A., Keruly, J. C., & Moore, R. D. (2005). Changes in renal function associated with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate treatment, compared with nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor treatment. Clin Infect Dis, 40(8), 1194-1198.
Gallant, J. E., Staszewski, S., Pozniak, A. L., DeJesus, E., Suleiman, J. M., Miller, M. D., Cheng, A. K. (2004). Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF vs stavudine in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naive patients: a 3-year randomized trial. Jama, 292(2), 191-201.
Gitman, M. D., Hirschwerk, D., Baskin, C. H., & Singhal, P. C. (2007). Tenofovir-induced kidney injury. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 6(2), 155-164.
Gupta, S. K. (2008). Tenofovir-associated Fanconi syndrome: review of the FDA adverse event reporting system. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 22(2), 99-103.
Hall, A. M., Hendry, B. M., Nitsch, D., & Connolly, J. O. (2011). Tenofovir-associated kidney toxicity in HIV-infected patients: a review of the evidence. Am J Kidney Dis, 57(5), 773-780.
Herlitz, L. C., Mohan, S., Stokes, M. B., Radhakrishnan, J., D'Agati, V. D., & Markowitz, G. S. (2010). Tenofovir nephrotoxicity: acute tubular necrosis with distinctive clinical, pathological, and mitochondrial abnormalities. Kidney Int, 78(11), 1171-1177.
Izzedine, H., Isnard-Bagnis, C., Hulot, J. S., Vittecoq, D., Cheng, A., Jais, C. K., Deray, G. (2004). Renal safety of tenofovir in HIV treatment-experienced patients. Aids, 18(7), 1074-1076.
Jafari, A., Khalili, H., & Dashti-Khavidaki, S. (2014). Tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity: incidence, mechanism, risk factors, prognosis and proposed agents for prevention. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 70(9), 1029-1040.
Kelly, L., Fukushima, H., Karchin, R., Gow, J. M., Chinn, L. W., Pieper, U., Sali, A. (2010). Functional hot spots in human ATP-binding cassette transporter nucleotide binding domains. Protein Sci, 19(11), 2110-2121.
Kiertiburanakul, S., Chaisiri, K., Kasettratat, N., Visuttimak, P., & Bowonwatanuwong, C. (2011). Monitoring of renal function among HIV-Infected patients receiving tenofovir in a resource-limited setting. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic), 10(5), 297-302.
Kohler, J. J., Hosseini, S. H., Green, E., Abuin, A., Ludaway, T., Russ, R., .Lewis, W. (2011). Tenofovir renal proximal tubular toxicity is regulated by OAT1 and MRP4 transporters. Lab Invest, 91(6), 852-858.
Kohler, J. J., Hosseini, S. H., Hoying-Brandt, A., Green, E., Johnson, D. M., Russ, R., .Lewis, W. (2009). Tenofovir renal toxicity targets mitochondria of renal proximal tubules. Lab Invest, 89(5), 513-519.
Krummel, T., Parvez-Braun, L., Frantzen, L., Lalanne, H., Marcellin, L., Hannedouche, T., & Moulin, B. (2005). Tenofovir-induced acute renal failure in an HIV patient with normal renal function. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 20(2), 473-474.
Labarga, P., Barreiro, P., Martin-Carbonero, L., Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Solera, C., Medrano, J., Soriano, V. (2009). Kidney tubular abnormalities in the absence of impaired glomerular function in HIV patients treated with tenofovir. Aids, 23(6),
689-696.
Lebrecht, D., Venhoff, A. C., Kirschner, J., Wiech, T., Venhoff, N., & Walker, U. A. (2009). Mitochondrial tubulopathy in tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-treated rats. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 51(3), 258-263.
Lyseng-Williamson, K. A., Reynolds, N. A., & Plosker, G. L. (2005). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs, 65(3), 413-432.
Madeddu, G., Bonfanti, P., De Socio, G. V., Carradori, S., Grosso, C., Marconi, P., Quirino, T. (2008). Tenofovir renal safety in HIV-infected patients: results from the SCOLTA Project. Biomed Pharmacother, 62(1), 6-11.
Mandikova, J., Volkova, M., Pavek, P., Cesnek, M., Janeba, Z., Kubicek, V., & Trejtnar, F. (2013). Interactions with selected drug renal transporters and transporter-mediated cytotoxicity in antiviral agents from the group of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates. Toxicology, 311(3), 135-146.
Marcellin, P., Heathcote, E. J., Buti, M., Gane, E., de Man, R. A., Krastev, Z., Rousseau, F. (2008). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus adefovir dipivoxil for chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med, 359(23), 2442-2455.
Martin, J. L., Brown, C. E., Matthews-Davis, N., & Reardon, J. E. (1994). Effects of antiviral nucleoside analogs on human DNA polymerases and mitochondrial DNA synthesis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38(12), 2743-2749.
Mocroft, A., & Lundgren, J. D. (2004). Starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: why, when and response to HAART. J Antimicrob Chemother, 54(1), 10-13.
Moyle, G. (2000). Toxicity of antiretroviral nucleoside and nucleotide analogues: is mitochondrial toxicity the only mechanism? Drug Saf, 23(6), 467-481.
Ortiz, A., Justo, P., Sanz, A., Melero, R., Caramelo, C., Guerrero, M. F., Egido, J. (2005). Tubular cell apoptosis and cidofovir-induced acute renal failure. Antivir Ther, 10(1), 185-190.
Perazella, M. A. (2010). Tenofovir-induced kidney disease: an acquired renal tubular mitochondriopathy. Kidney Int, 78(11),
1060-1063.
Pushpakom, S. P., Liptrott, N. J., Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., Soriano, V., Albalater, M., Owen, A. (2011). Genetic variants of ABCC10, a novel tenofovir transporter, are associated with kidney tubular dysfunction. J Infect Dis, 204(1), 145-153.
Ray, A. S., Cihlar, T., Robinson, K. L., Tong, L., Vela, J. E., Fuller, M. D., Rhodes, G. R. (2006). Mechanism of active renal tubular efflux of tenofovir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50(10), 3297-3304.
Ray, A. S., Fordyce, M. W., & Hitchcock, M. J. (2016). Tenofovir alafenamide: A novel prodrug of tenofovir for the treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Antiviral Res, 125, 63-70.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., D'Avolio, A., Barreiro, P., Albalate, M., Vispo, E., Soriano, V. (2010). Impairment in kidney tubular function in patients receiving tenofovir is associated with higher tenofovir plasma concentrations. Aids, 24(7), 1064-1066.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., & Soriano, V. (2009). Pharmacogenetics of tenofovir treatment. Pharmacogenomics, 10(10), 1675-1685.
Rodriguez-Novoa, S., Labarga, P., Soriano, V., Egan, D., Albalater, M., Morello, J., Owen, A. (2009). Predictors of kidney tubular dysfunction in HIV-infected patients treated with tenofovir: a pharmacogenetic study. Clin Infect Dis, 48(11), e108-116.
Scott, J. D., Wolfe, P. R., Bolan, R. K., & Guyer, B. (2006). Serious renal impairment occurs rarely with use of tenofovir DF. HIV Clin Trials, 7(2), 55-58.
Stefkova, J., Poledne, R., & Hubacek, J. A. (2004). ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in human metabolism and diseases. Physiol Res, 53(3), 235-243.
Taneva, E., Crooker, K., Park, S. H., Su, J. T., Ott, A., Cheshenko, N., Herold, B. C. (2015). Differential mechanisms of tenofovir and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate cellular transport and implications for topical preexposure prophylaxis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 60(3), 1667-1675.
Tanji, N., Tanji, K., Kambham, N., Markowitz, G. S., Bell, A., & D'Agati V. D. (2001). Adefovir nephrotoxicity: possible role of mitochondrial DNA depletion. Hum Pathol, 32(7), 734-740.
Verhelst, D., Monge, M., Meynard, J. L., Fouqueray, B., Mougenot, B., Girard, P. M., Rossert, J. (2002). Fanconi syndrome and renal failure induced by tenofovir: a first case report. Am J Kidney Dis, 40(6), 1331-1333.
WHO. (2016, 13/8/59). World Health Oraganization. 2015 Global summary of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Retrieved 13/8/59, 2016, from http://www.who.int/hiv/data/epi_core_2016.png?ua=1
Winston, A., Amin, J., Mallon, P., Marriott, D., Carr, A., Cooper, D. A., & Emery, S. (2006). Minor changes in calculated creatinine clearance and anion-gap are associated with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-containing highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med, 7(2), 105-111.
Zimmermann, A. E., Pizzoferrato, T., Bedford, J., Morris, A., Hoffman, R., & Braden, G. (2006). Tenofovir-associated acute and chronic kidney disease: a case of multiple drug interactions. Clin Infect Dis, 42(2), 283-290.
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2017-07-04
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